### Activity List Detailed document listing all tasks needed to complete the project, broken down from the WBS into smaller, manageable activities. NOTE: Activity List is created later in Schedule Management during the Define Activities process, not as part of the scope baseline. ### Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) how the Buyer and Seller will manage any contract disputes or disagreements that may arise. Many contracts include ADR mechanisms or steps or clarity and planning.[^1] ### Agile approach An agile (iterative and incremental) approach is applied to projects with dynamic requirements and multiple iterations. Agile focuses on frequent deliveries and regular feedback, so the project manager can show continuous progress to management to obtain continuous investment. Agile is the best option because there is an emphasis on delivering value on a regular basis. ### Affinity diagram - A qualitative risk analysis technique used to organise specific ideas or factors that contribute to a risk. It helps to sort risks by similarities or generic risk categories. - organizes potential **causes of defects** into groups showing areas that should be focused on the most. ### Appraisal costs A specific category of quality control costs. Companies pay appraisal costs as part of the **quality control** process to ensure that their products and services meet customer expectations and **regulatory** requirements. These costs could include expenses for **field tests** and **inspections**.[^2] ### assumption log records all assumptions and constraints throughout the project. An **assumption** is a factor that is considered to be true, real, or certain, without proof or demonstration. A **constraint** is a factor that limits the options for managing a project, program, portfolio, or process.  ### Attribute sampling a method of measuring quality that consists of observing the presence (or absence) of some characteristics (attributes) in each of the units under consideration to determine whether to accept a lot, reject it, or inspect another lot.[^3] ### Baseline - A version of the plan that exists once the plan is stabilised. [^4] - baseline (whether it is the scope baseline, schedule baseline, cost baseline, or performance measurement baseline) includes **the original plan plus all approved changes**. Once the budget change was approved, it should be added to the cost baseline. [^5] ### Benchmarking looking at other projects or industry standards to collect the requirements for your project.[^6] ### Benefit Cost Ratio (BCO) Financial metric used to evaluate a project's cost-effectiveness by comparing its expected benefits to its costs. It helps determine whether a project is financially viable: the bigger the better. - BCR \> 1 → The project's benefits exceed its costs (Good investment). - BCR = 1 → The project's benefits equal its costs (Break-even). - BCR \< 1 → The project's costs exceed its benefits (Not a good investment). ### Benefits management plan - Describes what are the benefits and how and when they will be delivered. - A benefits management plan details how benefits will be realized and measured throughout the project lifecycle. ### Bid documents - ** Invitation for Bid (IFB)** and **Request for Bid (RFB):** Request from a buyer for all potential sellers to submit a total price bid for work to be performed. - **Request for Proposal (RFP):** Buyer’s request to all potential sellers for the details of how work will be performed. The RFP contains all the functional and non functional requirements and the acceptance criteria. - **Request for Quotation (RFQ):** Buyer’s request to all potential sellers for a price quote per item, hour, foot or other unit of measure. - **RFI (Request for Information) **is a formal document used to gather information from potential vendors or suppliers before making procurement decisions. **RFP** is used when the item is complex, **RFI** is when more information is needed. **Bidder conference** is used to ensure all sellers have enough information.[^7] ### bidder conference intended to assure that: - no seller receives preferential treatment - all sellers have a clear, common understanding of the procurement (technical requirements, contractual requirements, etc.). The key **objective** is to provide all potential contractors with the information they need to determine if they would like to continue with the contracting process.[^8] ### Brainstorming to obtain a comprehensive list of individual project risks and sources of overall project risk. ### Business case - A business case is a value proposition for a project that may include financial and nonfinancial benefits. Includes business need, solution options and a cost-benefit analysis. - A business case is used to determine if the cost of a project is justified. - business case is a document that justifies the project and explains how it will benefit the organization. It is not a key input to the project charter. ### Burn rate The estimated cost per iteration or per accounting period. [^9] ### CCB Change Control Board, aka steering committee - approves, defers, or rejects the changes. The results of the decisions are documented in the project s change log. The board may include the project manager, the customer, experts, the sponsor, functional managers, and others. For the exam, assume that plan-driven projects have change control boards.[^10] The project manager must start the Integrated Change Control Process to evaluate impacts on schedule, costs, and other knowledge areas before the change approval and implementation. Whenever a change request could affect any one of the project baselines, an integrated change control process is necessary. ### Change request A formal proposal to modify any document, deliverable, or baseline. Corrective action, Preventive action, Defect repair, Updates. ### CPI and SPI - Cost Performance Index (CPI) less than one indicates over budget; CPI greater than one is under budget. - Schedule Performance Index (SPI) less than one indicates behind schedule; SPI greater than one is ahead of schedule. - **cost performance index **(CPI) is a measure of the cost efficiency of budgeted resources, expressed as a ratio of earned value to actual cost. It is considered the most critical EVA metric and measures the cost efficiency for the work completed. A CPI value of less than 1.0 indicates a cost overrun for work completed. A CPI value greater than 1.0 indicates a cost underrun of performance to date. The CPI is equal to the ratio of the EV to the AC. Equation: CPI = EV/AC"[^11] ### Change request A formal request by a stakeholder to a baselined project document. Recorded in the change log. ### Claims administration or handling of claims one of the most frequent activities in the Control Procurements process. Claims, disputes, or appeals are requested when the buyer and seller **disagree** on the scope, the impact of changes, or the interpretation of some terms and conditions in the contract. All these claims should be documented, processed, monitored, and managed in accordance with the contract terms **throughout the contract life cycle**. It is desirable to resolve the disputes through **negotiation**, but unresolved claims may require escalation to dispute resolution procedures, such as **arbitration or litigation**, established in the contract.[^12] ### Compliance requirements Typically **non-functional** because they define the quality and constraints of the project's deliverables rather than specific features or functionalities. They are a condition or capability that is necessary to be present in an end deliverable to satisfy a business need. Government standards and regulations establish project requirements including applicable administrative provisions that have to adhere to government-mandated compliance regulations. Compliance requirements impact many other project requirements, such as scope, schedule, and budget, therefore they must be documented and addressed throughout the project. There will also need to be verification that the end deliverable complies with a regulation, requirement, specification, or imposed condition, so the product team must identify, document, and manage these requirements throughout the project. ### Configuration management plan describe the different versions and characteristics of the product, service, or result of the project and ensures accuracy and completeness of the description.[^13] ### configuration management system A subset of the Project Management Information System (PMIS) that describes the different versions and characteristics of the product, service, or result of the project and ensures accuracy and completeness of the description. It is all about managing different configurations of a product. At some point in time, a product will be base lined, and different configurations, versions, and branches are managed from that point.[^14] ### Conflicts: structural and interpersonal Structural conflict is caused by factors outside of the team, such as unrealistic deadlines or unclear expectations. Interpersonal conflict is caused by differences between team members, such as personality clashes or different work styles ### Conflict resolution techniques - compromise/reconcile: both parties give up something in order to reach an agreement. - Withdraw/avoid: withdrawing from the conflict or avoiding it altogether.  - Smooth/accommodate: giving in to the other party's demands to avoid conflict.  -  Force/direct: using one's power or authority to get the other party to agree to one's demands. The withdraw/avoid method is appropriate when the stakeholder is low-influence and the conflict is not significant. The smooth/accommodate method is appropriate when the stakeholder is high-influence and the conflict is significant. The force/direct method is appropriate when the stakeholder is low-influence and the conflict is significant. The compromise/reconcile method is appropriate when the stakeholder is high-influence and the conflict is significant.  ### Constraints Limitations that limit the available options for a project - [^15] such as limitations on time, budget, scope, quality, schedule, resource, and technology. An imposed deadline and budget are examples of constraints. [^16] ### Constraints, Theory of  a methodology for identifying the most important limiting factor (i.e., constraint) that stands in the way of achieving a goal and then systematically improving that constraint until it is no longer the limiting factor. In manufacturing, the constraint is often referred to as a bottleneck. ### Contract Types - **Fixed-price**: should be used when the requirements are well defined and no significant changes to the scope are expected. Types of fixed-price contract include: - **Firm fixed price (FFP). **The most commonly used contract type is the FFP. It is favored by most buying organizations because the price for goods is set at the outset and not subject to change unless the scope of work changes. - **Fixed price incentive fee** (FPIF). This fixed-price arrangement gives the buyer and seller some flexibility in that it allows for deviation from performance, with financial incentives tied to achieving agreed-upon metrics. Typically, such financial incentives are related to cost, schedule, or technical performance of the seller. Under FPIF contracts, a price ceiling is set, and all costs above the price ceiling are the responsibility of the seller. - **Fixed price with economic price adjustments (FPEPA)** used whenever the seller's performance period spans a considerable period of years, or if the payments are made in a different currency. It is a fixed-price contract, but with a special provision allowing for predefined final adjustments to the contract price due to changed conditions, such as inflation changes or cost increases (or decreases) for specific commodities. - **Fixed-price increments** allow for the project to be broken down into smaller, more manageable pieces, with payment being made upon completion of each increment. This helps to ensure that both parties are sharing the risk equally.  - **Cost-reimbursable**  (for when the work is evolving): - **Cost plus fixed fee (CPFF).** Buyer pays the work expense, and then a fixed fee to the seller for profit. - **Cost plus incentive dee (CPIF).** Work expense + incentive if the target is met. - **Cost plus award fee (CPAF).** Seller gets a bonus plus actual costs, similar to CPIF. - **Cost plus Fee (CPF)** or **Cost Plus Percentage of Costs (CPPC)**. Work expense  + award fee based on satisfaction of work. - **Time and materials** (when the scope of work is not well-defined and the contract duration is not fixed). All the risks are with the buyer. - **Graduated time and materials** is a pricing model that allows for the project to be completed within a certain timeframe, with the cost of materials and labor increasing as the project progresses.  - **Not-to-exceed time** sets a maximum amount of time for a project to be completed. - Early cancellation option is a clause that allows for the cancellation of a project before it is completed.  - **Dynamic scope **option allows for changes to the project scope during the project lifecycle, to ensure that the project meets the needs of the stakeholders.  ### Control chart  used to determine whether or not a process is stable or has predictable performance ### Control Scope the process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope, maintaining control over the project by **preventing** overwhelming scope **change requests**, and managing c**hanges to the scope baseline**. It also assures that underlying causes of all requested changes and recommended corrective actions are understood and processed through the Integrated Change Control Process.[^17] ### contingency reserve - time or money allocated in the schedule or cost baseline for known risks with active response strategies. [^18] - typically calculated based on identified risks, not directly on individual activity costs.[^19] ### corrective action  Anything done to bring future results in line with the plan. Generally comes in the form of change requests from monitoring and controlling processes. [^20] ### Cost aggregation a bottom-up estimate, the most accurate estimate in most cases.[^21] ### cost baseline is the approved version of the time-phased project budget, excluding any management reserves, which can be changed only through formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison to actual results. ### Cost Benefit analysis Identifying the point where the benefits or revenue from improving quality equals the incremental cost to achieve that quality. ### Cost of Quality - **Prevention costs** are training or quality planning. - **Appraisal costs** are verification or audits. - **Internal failure** is waste, defects, rework. - **External failure** is customer complaints, repairs and servicing, warranty claims ### Crashing A technique of adding additional resources to a project activity to complete it in less time. Examples of crashing could include approving overtime, bringing in additional resources, or paying to expedite delivery to activities on the critical path. Crashing does not always produce a viable alternative and may result in increased risk, more management time, and/or cost. Increasing the number of resources may decrease time, but not in a linear amount as activities will often encounter the law of diminishing returns.[^22] ### Critical Chain Method (CCM)  ChatGPT: A project scheduling technique that focuses on resource constraints in addition to task dependencies. - **Focuses on resource constraints** – Unlike CPM, which looks at task dependencies, CCM accounts for limited resources (people, equipment, etc.). - **Adds Buffers** – Time buffers are added to protect against delays, ensuring project completion on time. - **Avoids Multitasking** – Prioritizes tasks to minimize work interruptions and improve efficiency. - **Uses a Single Critical Chain** – Determines the **longest** sequence of dependent tasks while considering resource availability. #### Types of Buffers in CCM: **Project Buffer** – Added at the end of the project to protect against delays in the critical chain. **Feeding Buffers** – Added before non-critical tasks merge with the critical chain to avoid disruptions. **Resource Buffers** – Ensures that key resources are available when neede **Crowe**: A resource-constrained critical path… Critical chain does include 2 types of buffers - the project buffer is placed at the end of the critical chain to protect delivery date; and, the feeding buffers mitigate the risk of feeding paths that may burn through their float and could cause a delay to the critical chain. So, **feeding buffers** are introduced at those points along the critical chain where feeding paths that are not critical intersect with the critical chain. [^23] ### Critical Path Method (CPM) a technique of schedule analysis that considers **activity durations, logical relationships, dependencies, leads, lags, assumptions**, and **constraints** to determine the **float** of each activity and the overall schedule. This method identifies the critical path with the least flexibility and the highest risk so that it can be managed appropriately. **Critical Path:** - the longest path in the project schedule (in terms of time, not the number of tasks). - determines the shortest project duration possible. - If any activity on the critical path is delayed, the entire project gets delayed unless corrective action is taken. A **feeding path** is a sequence of activities that leads into the critical path but is not part of it. These paths consist of non-critical activities that can still impact the project if they experience delays. ### Cycle time The length of time to go through part of the process. For example, from assembly to painting, or from coding to testing.[^24] Cycle time = WIP/Throughput ### Decision tree Analysis Quantitate risk analysis  technique used to determine partial and global probabilities of occurrence. ### Definition of Done (DoD) - a checklist of all the criteria required to be met so that a deliverable can be considered ready for customer use.  - a set of criteria that must be met before a deliverable is considered complete. ### Delphi technique - A facilitated anonymous polling to identify risks. Facilitator gathers responses and circulates them without attribution to the group for review. The process generates a concensus after a few iterations. Good for when group members cannot meet in one place. - a structured communication method used to reach a consensus among experts through multiple rounds of surveys or questionnaires. It helps in decision-making by refining opinions anonymously and iteratively until a common agreement is achieved. It is commonly used in project management, forecasting, and strategic planning. ### decision tree a tool that is used to help make decisions under uncertainty. ### Defaulting (of a vendor):  a situation where the vendor fails to meet contractual obligations, such as delivering goods or services on time, maintaining quality standards, or making required payments. This can lead to penalties, legal actions, or contract termination. ### Dependency #### Mandatory vs. Discretionary Dependencies - **Mandatory** (Hard Logic): Required by contract, law, or physical constraints. - _Example: You must build a house’s foundation before constructing the walls._ - **Discretionary** (Soft Logic): Based on best practices or preferences. - _Example: Choosing to review a document after drafting instead of simultaneously._ #### Internal vs. External Dependencies - **Internal**: Within the project team's control. - _Example: Design approval before development starts._ - **External**: Outside the project team's control. - _Example: Waiting for government permits before starting construction._ ### Design for Excellence (Design for X, DfX) - A set of guidelines to optimise for a specific aspect of design. X can be reliability, cost, series, usability, safety, quality, etc. ### DISC model  A behavioral assessment tool that helps understand communication styles and personality traits. In project management, it is useful for team dynamics, leadership, and stakeholder management. ### Four DISC Personality Types: 1. **Dominance** (D) – Results-driven, decisive, competitive, and assertive.   _Strengths_: Quick decision-making, goal-oriented, challenges the status quo.   _Weaknesses_: May be impatient or overlook details. 2. **Influence** (I) – Outgoing, persuasive, enthusiastic, and people-focused.   _Strengths_: Builds relationships, motivates others, creates a positive atmosphere.   _Weaknesses_: May lack focus or be overly optimistic. 3. **Steadiness** (S) – Cooperative, patient, team-oriented, and dependable.   _Strengths_: Loyal, great listener, supportive, and reliable.   _Weaknesses_: May resist change or avoid conflict. 4. **Conscientiousness** (C) – Detail-oriented, analytical, precise, and systematic.   _Strengths_: High-quality work, logical thinking, follows rules and procedures.   _Weaknesses_: May be overly critical or slow in decision-making. ### Earned value analysis used to integrate scope, cost, and schedule measures to assess project performance.** Trend analysis** and **variance analysis** are included in earned value analysis. **Variance analysis** may include only a comparison of actual performance with one specific baseline.[^25] ### Estimating - **Three-point estimating** uses the most likely, optimistic, and pessimistic estimates, which improves estimate accuracy for a project with high uncertainty. - **Analogous** estimating uses values from a previous similar project. - **Parametric** estimating uses a statistical relationship with historical data and is often used in construction. produces a high level of accuracy, but is costly due to the level of sophistication that is required to implement it. Typical when the performing organization conducts many similar projects, historical information is accurate, and the model used for the estimate is scalable. [^26] - **bottom-up** estimate is the most time-consuming and generally the most accurate estimate. In this technique, one estimate per activity is received from the team members. This estimate can be based on expert judgment, historical information, or an educated guess. A rough order of magnitude is an approximate estimate (–25 percent to 75 percent) made without detailed data. It is used during the formative stages for initial evaluation of a project’s feasibility. - **heuristic** estimate is based on rule of thumb, such as the 80/20 rule - **top-down** estimate is usually given to the project manager from management or the sponsor. This type of estimate measures the project parameters, such as budget, size, complexity, and duration based on the parameters of a previous similar project and historical information. It is usually done during an early phase of the project when not much information is available; thus, it is less accurate even though it is less costly and less time consuming.[^27] ### Expectancy theory - demonstrates that employees who believe their efforts will lead to effective performance and who expect to be rewarded for their accomplishments, remain productive as rewards meet their expectations.[^28] - Study Hall: proposes that employees are motivated when they are given assignments they feel confident they can achieve, when they value the compensation you offer and when they believe you will compensate them as promised. ### Expert theories: 1. **Maslow**. Psychological needs for growth and fulllment can be met only when lower-level physical or security needs have been fulfilled 2. **Herzberg’s** Two-Factor Theory (motivational theory): motivation vs hygiene. According to Herzberg, destroying hygiene factors such as **working conditions, salary, status, and security** can destroy motivation, but improving them under most circumstances will not improve motivation. The hygiene factors are not sufficient to motivate people, and motivating agents provide the best positive reinforcement. Motivating people is best done by rewarding and letting people grow.[^29] **Motivation** factors increase job satisfaction and drive performance (Achievement, Recognition, Growth and advancement, Responsibility, The work itself).   **Hygiene** prevent dissatisfaction but do not necessarily increase satisfaction. (Salary, Company policies, Job security, Work conditions, Relationship with peers and supervisors)ю 3. **McClelland**. Theory of Needs: Need for Achievement (nAch), Need for Power (nPow), and Need for Affiliation (nAff). 4. **Tuckman’s** ladder: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning 5. **Kotter** model: establish a sense of urgency, form a powerful coalition, develop a change vision, communicate the vision, empower action, create quick wins, build on the change, and make it stick. 6. **contingency theory** emphasizes the importance of both the leader's personality and the situation in which that leader operates. ### Fast tracking A schedule compression technique in which activities or phases normally done in sequence are performed in parallel for at least a portion of their duration. An example is constructing the foundation for a building before completing all of the architectural drawings. Fast tracking may result in rework and increased risk. Fast tracking only works when activities can be overlapped to shorten the project duration on the critical path. Using leads in case of schedule acceleration usually increases coordination efforts between the activities concerned and increases quality risk. Fast tracking may also increase project costs.[^30] ### Flow chart - shows a series of steps that lead to a defect. - helps the project team anticipate and identify where quality problems might occur in a project[^31] - a great tool for [finding bottlenecks] - it helps uncover failing processes. Barbara may find that one department is at fault, or the problems may be in the transition or handoff from one department to another. Or, quality issues may be due to something as simple as communication. Flowcharting the processes will help determine next steps. It is a technique of the Data Representation tool.[^32] ### Force majeure an allowable excuse for either party for not meeting contractual obligations in the event of something considered to be an act of God, such as fire, storm, flood, and freak electrical storm. Since the event is considered to be neither party’s fault, usually the seller receives a time extension, and risk of loss is borne by the seller, which is usually covered by insurance.[^33] ### Fringe benefits the standard benefits formally given to all employees, such as education benefits, health insurance, and profit sharing.[^34] ### Funding limit reconciliation A technique of reconciling the expenditure of funds with the funding limits set for the project.[^35] ### Functional and Strong Functional organization  **Functional Organization:** - The functional manager has full control over resources and decision-making. - Projects are managed within departments (e.g., IT, HR, Finance) with little cross-functional collaboration. - The project manager (if present) has limited authority and mainly acts as a coordinator. **Strong Functional Organization:** - Still structured by functions, but the **project manager has more influence** over resources and decision-making. - More cross-functional collaboration occurs, though the functional manager still holds primary authority. - Projects are more formally managed than in a purely functional setup ### Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene theory hygiene factors are not sufficient to motivate people, and motivating agents provide the best positive reinforcement. Hygiene factors can destroy motivation, but improving them under most circumstances will not improve motivation.[^36] ### Histogram Shows the number of **defects** per deliverable, a ranking of the cause of defects, the number of times each process is noncompliant, or other representations of project or product defects. ### Historical information An organisational process asset, a set of records that show previous estimates, resources and lessons learned used to help predict trends, avoid mistakes and evaluate feasibility. [^37] ### Ideation 2.0 - SH: using new approaches to ideate solutions to the problems you encounter in your daily routine, helping you to design collaboratively while keeping in mind the necessary outputs to inform the initial prototype. - ChatGPT: structured approach to idea generation and innovation - A more structured, data-driven, and technology-enabled way of generating, refining, and implementing ideas. - Often involves AI, crowdsourcing, design thinking, and agile methods to enhance creativity. - Focuses on collaboration, rapid prototyping, and real-world testing of ideas before full implementation. ### Incentive a bonus in addition to the agreed-upon price for exceeding time or cost objectives as specified in the contract. For the seller, the focus is on profit, and for buyers, the focus can be a combination of cost, time, and performance. Incentives help bring the seller’s objectives in line with those of the buyer. With an incentive, both the buyer and seller work toward the same objective—for instance, completing the project on time.[^38] ### Integrated Change Control Perform Integrated Change Control is the process of reviewing all change requests; approving changes and managing changes to deliverables, organizational process assets, project documents, and the project management plan; and communicating the decisions. [^39] ### Interviewing  may be used to generate input for the quantitative risk analysis, drawing on on inputs that includes individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty. ### Inspection - An examination of a work product to determine whether it conforms to documented standards. - Inspections are done in the Control Procurement process to ensure that the work getting done by the contractor is meeting the agreement requirements.[^40] ### Ishikawa/fish-bone diagram/ cause-and-effect diagram Can be used in a systematic identification of problems as well as their origins. Common uses of the Ishikawa diagram are product design and quality defect prevention to identify potential factors causing an overall effect. Each cause or reason for imperfection is a source of variation. Causes are usually grouped into major categories to identify and classify these sources of variation.[^41] ### issue is a current condition or situation that may have an impact on the project objectives. ### issue log A project document where all the issues are recorded and tracked and should be updated as issues arise as a result of monitoring and control activities throughout the project's life cycle.[^42] ### Item Crashing A technique used to shorten the schedule duration for the least incremental cost by adding resources. Examples of crashing include approving overtime, bringing in additional resources, or paying to expedite delivery to activities on the critical path.[^43] ### Kotter´s Change Management Model  The Kotter model involves eight steps: establish a sense of urgency, form a powerful coalition, develop a change vision, communicate the vision, empower action, create quick wins, build on the change, and make it stick. ### Law of Commitment and Consistency can be called “Get the other person saying ‘yes, yes’ immediately.” This occurs when one party asks the other side to make a number of “small” decisions that lead to only one obvious conclusion: to accept the general concession. ### Lead time The length of time of an entire process. For example, from design to shipping, or from requirements gathering through development to deployment. [^44] ###  Large-Scale Scrum (LeSS) A framework for multiple teams to leverage Scrum and work together to create completed work elements and then contribute these multiple elements to a single shippable product. For example, two or three Scrum teams could use LeSS to coordinate, combine, and deliver features to a single software product, either in a release or through continuous delivery. ### leadership behavior and motivation theories - **Affiliation** Orientation → Useful in team-building and conflict resolution. - focuses on relationships, harmony, and team cohesion. - prioritizes building strong connections - Best suited for **collaborative** team environments - **downside**: May avoid conflict or difficult decisions to maintain relationships - **Achievement** Orientation → Helps drive high performance and efficiency. - SetS high-performance standards and pushing their team to excel. - emphasizes goal-setting, results, and continuous improvement. - Best suited for **high-performing teams** or **competitive environments** that require innovation and efficiency. - **Downside**: Can create stress if expectations are too high or if team members lack the necessary skills. - **Power** Orientation → Important for stakeholder management and influence. -  Focuses on authority, influence, and control over decisions and resources. - Seeks to drive results by asserting dominance and gaining influence within the organization. - Best suited for environments that require **strong direction**, quick decision-making, and **control over outcomes**. - **Downside**: Can lead to authoritarian leadership, limiting collaboration and innovation. - **Directive** Orientation → Useful in risk management and ensuring adherence to project plans. - Focuses on clear instructions, structure, and close supervision. - They tell team members exactly what to do, how to do it, and when to do it, ensuring compliance with processes. - Best suited for **high-risk projects, inexperienced teams, or crisis situations**. - **Downside**: Can reduce autonomy and creativity, making the team overly dependent on the leader. ### Lessons learned Information gathered at the end of each phase or project, focussing on variances between the plan and the results. The goal is to detail any information that should be shared with future projects. [^45] A lessons learned register records knowledge gained during a project ### live‐data prototype one of the forms of prototype created in product discovery intended to expose certain use cases to a limited group of users to collect some actual usage data.[^46] ### Manage Quality  - The process of **translating the quality management plan into executable quality activities **that incorporate the organization's quality policies into the project. The key benefits of this process are that it increases the probability of meeting the quality objectives as well as identifying ineffective processes and causes of poor quality. Manage Quality uses the data and results from the control quality process to reflect the overall quality status of the project to the stakeholders. This process is performed **throughout the project**…. Manage Quality is considered **the work of everybody**—the project manager, the project team, the project sponsor, the management of the performing organization, and even the customer. In agile projects, quality management is **performed by all team members throughout the project**, but in traditional projects, quality management is often the responsibility of specific team members [^47] - A process to determine if the project activities are complying with organizational and project **policies, standards, processes, and procedures.** This process is primarily concerned with overall process improvement and does not deal with inspecting the product for quality or measuring defects. The primary focus is on steadily **improving the processes and activities** undertaken to achieve quality.[^48] ### management reserve the amount of the project budget or project schedule held outside of the performance measurement baseline for management control purposes that is reserved for unforeseen work that is within the project scope.[^49] ### Maslow’s Five Levels of Needs 1. **Physiological** Needs (Basic Needs). Essential for survival: food, water, shelter, sleep. 2. **Safety** Needs (Security & Stability). Protection from harm, job security, financial stability, health, safe working conditions. 3. **Social** Needs (Belongingness & Love). Friendships, teamwork, collaboration, and a sense of belonging. 4. **Esteem** Needs (Recognition & Achievement). Respect, self-esteem, recognition, career growth, and confidence. 5. **Self-Actualization** (Personal Growth & Fulfillment) – Highest Level. Reaching full potential, personal growth, problem-solving, and creativity. ### Matrix and Strong Matrix organization  **Matrix Organization (Balanced Matrix):** - Power is shared between functional and project managers. - Resources report to both, but functional managers still have significant control. - The project manager has moderate authority and focuses on coordination. **Strong Matrix Organization:** - The **project manager has more authority than the functional manager.** - Resources are still shared, but the project manager controls budgets, schedules, and decision-making. - It resembles a projectized structure but still retains functional elements. ### Mega projects **Persuasion, deputation and give and take,** amongst others, are options that can tactically influence the outcomes of mega projects.[^50] ### Meeting management 1. Preparing an agenda 2. Ensuring the right stakeholders are invited 3. Ensuring they team stay on track 4. and everyone is able to contribute 5. Gathering actions and their owners to follow up 6. Summarising the outcome at the end  ### Monte Carlo analysis A quantitative risk analysis that computes to iterates the project cost or schedule many times using input values, selected at random from probability distributions of possible costs or duration, to calculate a distribution of possible total project costs or completions dates. ### Nominal Group Technique - typically starts by gathering a large eld of candidate items (in this case they are scope items) and voting on them to sort them from highest down to lowest in order of priority. It is designed to rapidly identify the scope items that would provide the highest value to the most people [^51] - Results in the requirements documentation and the requirements traceability matrix.[^52] - The Nominal Group Technique focuses on generating ideas anonymously before the discussion. - a structured group process that helps to ensure that everyone's opinion is heard and considered. It is a non-confrontational approach, which can help to diffuse any tension or conflict that may be present and is a relatively quick and easy way to reach a decision. ### Leadership styles **Laissez-faire** (allowing the team to make their own decisions, establish their own goals, a hands-off style),  laissez -faire leadership style leaves the decision up to everyone as in this scenario. Also called Free-rein leadership style. **Transactional** (focus on goals, feedback and accomplishments, manage by exception) **servant leader** (put other people first, focus on growth, learning, development, autonomy and well-being)[^53] **Visionary**: provide long-term direction and vision. **Affiliative**: create harmony by connecting people to each other. **Participative**: build commitment and generate new ideas. **Coaching**: long-term professional development of others.[^54] **Democratic** - This project manager draws on the team members' knowledge and skills and is able to create a group commitment to common goals. **Smoothing** - resource smoothing is defined as a technique that adjusts the activities of a schedule model so that all requirements for the resources do not go beyond the resource limits already pre-defined during the planning **Autocratic** management strictly means the manager makes all the decisions, without involving the team members. ### Opportunity cost simply how much benefit you are passing up. [^55] ### Organizational process assets - The Organizational Process Assets (OPAs) encompass various organizational procedures, policies, historical information, and knowledge repositories. These assets often include guidelines and procedures for staffing and recruiting processes within the organization. Therefore, the project manager should consult the OPAs when recruiting a new team member - include anything the organization has acquired that you can use in the management of the project. ### Pareto Principle states that 80 percent of a project's benefit comes from 20 percent of the work. Or, conversely, that 80 percent of problems can be traced back to 20 percent of causes. Pareto Analysis identifies the problem areas or tasks that will have the biggest payoff. ### Pareto chart - a type of chart that contains both bars and a line graph, where individual values are represented in descending order by bars, and the cumulative total is represented by the line. [^56] - A Pareto Chart indicates the frequency of defects, as well as their cumulative impact and can be useful to find the defects to prioritize in order to achieve the greatest overall improvement.[^57] - The Pareto Diagram is a tool that focuses on identifying the "vital few" stakeholders with the most significant impact.  ### Perform Integrated Change Control The process necessary for reviewing change requests and, approving or disapproving, and managing changes to the deliverables, project management plan and documents, and the organizational process assets.[^58] ### Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis the process of prioritizing risks by assessing and combining their probability of occurrence and impact to the project if they occur.[^59] ### Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis the process of numerically analyzing the effect of overall project objectives of identified risks. It mostly performs numerical analysis using a modeling technique such as **Expected Monetary Value (EMV)** of the probability and impact of risks moved forward from the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process. [^60] ### PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)  analysis (Beta Estimate) A tool used to identify the time required to finish a particular task or activity E=(O+4M+P)/6 ### Plurality a group decision making technique where a decision is based on the largest block in a group, even if a majority is not achieved.[^61] ### Point of Total Assumption (PTA) The cost point in the contract where a subcontractor assumes responsibility for all additional costs. [^62] Formula is: _Target cost + (ceiling price – target price) ÷ buyer’s % share of cost overrun._ The PTA is important, because it helps identify the cost point in the contract where the seller has the most motivation to bring things to completion. ### Power a project manager’s ability to influence stakeholders, team members, and decision-making. 1. **Positional** Power (**Legitimate** Power). Comes from the formal authority of being in a leadership position. _Example: A project manager assigns tasks because they hold the project lead role._ 2. **Expert** Power. Based on knowledge, skills, or expertise in a particular field. ‘Being the subject matter expert or project management expert will give the project manager substantial power to influence and control team members’.[^63] _Example: A project manager with deep technical expertise is respected for their advice._ 3. **Reward** Power. Ability to give incentives or benefits to influence behavior.. _Example: Recognizing high-performing team members with bonuses, promotions, or public praise._ 4. **Referent** Power. Based on charisma, trust, or admiration—people follow because they respect the leader.  _Example: A project manager builds strong relationships and is well-liked, making the team eager to follow them._ Also: based on referring to someone in a higher position to leverage some of the superior’s power. 5. **Punitive** (**Coercive**) Power. Involves the ability to enforce consequences for non-compliance. _Example: A project manager warns that missing deadlines will impact performance reviews._ 6. **Informational** Power. Based on control over key data and communication that others need. _Example: The project manager has access to budget updates and selectively shares information._ #### Which Type is Best? ✔ **Expert & Referent** Power are the most effective because they foster respect and collaboration. ✔ **Coercive** Power should be used sparingly to avoid damaging team morale. ✔ A great project manager balances multiple power types depending on the situation. ### Predictive (waterfall) approach A development approach in which the project scope, time, and cost are determined in the early phases of the life cycle. A predictive approach is useful when the project and product requirements can be defined, collected, and analyzed at the start of the project. This may also be referred to as a waterfall approach. ### Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) A subset of **schedule network diagrams**. a visual project scheduling technique used to show the logical relationships between activities. It helps project managers **sequence** activities efficiently and identify **dependencies**.  (FS, SS, FF, SF). Unlike Gantt, which shows activity durations and start/end dates, PDM is focused on relationships between the activities.[^64]  ### Procurement management The set of processes that are used to obtain goods, services, or scope from outside the organisation. [^65] ### Procurement processes - **Conduct Procurements** is the process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding the procurement, usually in the form of a contract. - **Plan Procurements** is the process of documenting project purchasing decisions, specifying the approach, defining selection criteria to identify potential sellers, and putting together a procurement management plan.[^66] ### Product analysis Techniques such as product breakdown, systems analysis, system engineering, value engineering, value analysis, functional analysis, and others, may be used to perform a detailed analysis of the product, service, or result. This technique translates project objectives into tangible deliverables and requirements by improving the project team’s understanding of the product.[^67] ### Product scope an project scope **Product scope** describes the features, functions, and physical characteristics that characterize a product, service, or result. On the other hand, **project scope** describes the work needed to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and functions. **Product scope** may include subsidiary components, and **project scope** results in a single product, service, or result. **Product scope** completion, measured against the product requirements to determine successful fulfilment and **project scope** completion, is measured against the project plan, project scope statement, Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), WBS dictionary, and other elements.[^68] ### Product evaluation An investigation conducted to provide objective information about the quality of the product or service under test in accordance with the project requirement. ### Project A project is a temporary (finite) endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.[^69] ### project management plan a collection of baselines and subsidiary plans. ### Program Group of related projects that are coordinated together. Unlike projects, programs may also include operations.[^70] ### Progressive elaboration Acknowledgement that not all project’s characteristics can be known in the beginning and should be revisited and refined often through iterations. [^71] ### Project charter - A document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the existence of a project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities. [^72]  - Documents high-level estimates, measurable objectives, success criteria, milestones, and an initial budget. Initial planning may also include creating a high-level WBS and high-level risk identification.[^73] ### Project management The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. [^74] ### Project management plan - The project management plan is a document that describes how the project will be executed, monitored and controlled, and closed. [^75] - a collection of baselines and subsidiary plans. ### Project manager The person assigned by the performing organization to lead the project team that is responsible for achieving the project objectives. [^76] ### Project scope statement The project scope statement is a document that describes the **project's scope, which includes the project's goals, objectives, deliverables**, and acceptance criteria. It is the most specific and relevant input to the project charter that describes the key deliverables. The project scope statement should be developed in collaboration with the customer or end user of the software application to ensure that it meets their needs and expectations. ### proof of concept plan Predictive projects may use proof-of-concept developments to explore options. A proof of concept is a small-scale experiment that can be used to test the feasibility of a proposed change. It ensures that any alterations to the project align with its objectives, scope, and timeline. Presenting the plan to the project sponsor for approval maintains proper project governance and change control processes. ### Portfolio A company’s entire investment in projects and programs, - the truest expression of its strategic goals.[^77] ### Quality audits  typically used to address problems or improvements, not to validate deliverable specifications[^78] ### quality checklist used to determine what to inspect.[^79] ### Quality Management Plan identifies the quality requirements and/or standards for the project and its deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with quality requirements and/ or standards. ### Quantitative testing collecting evidence. ### Qualitative testing   rapid learning and big insights (Cagan) ### Readiness Review A structured evaluation conducted to determine whether a project, phase, or product is ready to proceed to the next stage. It ensures that all necessary resources, approvals, and risk mitigations are in place before moving forward. ### Rolling wave planning an iterative technique where work in the near term is planned in detail, while work further in the future is planned at a higher level. This would allow something to be delivered while other work is being planned. [^80] ### RACI chart RACI (responsible, accountable, consult, and inform) chart shows the project resources assigned to each work package. It is used to illustrate the connections between work packages, or activities. ### Residual risks Leftover risks that are expected to remain after the planned response of risk has been taken. Example: A project team identifies a risk of server failure and implements a mitigation strategy by using backup servers. However, there is still a small chance that both the primary and backup servers could fail. This remaining risk is residual risk. ### requirements traceability matrix - maps the requirements to the test cases to ensure that all requirements are tested. - documents the client requirement from conception and traces them to delivery, additional information included as these are refined through the different stages. ### Resource-based theory resources that are valuable, rare, difficult to imitate, and nonsubstitutable best position a firm for long-term success[^81] ### resource breakdown structure (RBS) A hierarchical representation of resources by category and type. Used for planning, managing and controlling project work. It should be revisited throughout the project to adjust for any changes in resource needs. An output of ‘Estimate Activity Resources’ process.  ### Resource calendars Track the availability of resources (personnel, equipment and materials). ### Resource leveling a resource optimization technique in which adjustments are made to the project schedule to optimize the allocation of resources. With resource leveling, start and finish dates are adjusted. ###  Resource allocation plan A document that identifies the resources that will be needed for the project and how they will be allocated, such as personnel, equipment, and materials. By referencing the resource allocation plan, the project manager can ensure that the resources that are needed for the project are available and that they are allocated in a way that maximizes efficiency. ### resource management plan used to help determine how resources are categorized, allocated, managed, and released. ### responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) a document that identifies who is responsible for each task on the project. One example of a RAM is a RACI (Responsible, Accountable, Consult, and Inform) chart, which can be used to ensure clear divisions of roles and responsibilities.[^82] ### Regulation An official document that provides guidelines, compliance with which is mandatory. [^83] ### Requirements Management Plan  a component of the project or program management plan that describes how requirements will be analyzed, documented and managed. ### retainage clause in order to ensure full completion, an amount of money, usually 5 to 10 percent is withheld from each payment and paid in full once the final work is completed. [^84] ### Risk attitude A disposition toward uncertainty, adopted explicitly or implicitly by individuals and groups, driven by perception, and evidenced by observable behavior:  Risk-averse, risk-neutral, risk-tolerant, risk-seeking ### Risk checklists are developed based on historical information and knowledge that has been accumulated from similar projects and from other sources of information. ### risk management plan - describes how risk management activities will be structured and performed. - provides information on risk-related roles and responsibilities - indicates how risk management activities are included in the budget and schedule - describes categories of risk, which may be expressed as a risk breakdown structure.[^85] ### Risk owners for each risk are nominated as part of the Identify Risks process and confirmed while performing qualitative risk analysis. A risk owner is a person responsible for monitoring the risk and for selecting and implementing an appropriate risk response strategy. If a risk owner is not assigned to a risk, then the risk response will not be implemented in a timely manner and delays to the schedule  ### risk report - a project document developed progressively throughout the risk management processes and summarizes information on individual project risks and the level of overall project risk. - summarizes information on individual project risks and the level of overall project risk.[^86] ### Risk register  A repository in which outputs of risk management processes are recorded. Information in a risk register can include the person responsible for managing the risk, probability, impact, risk score, planned risk responses, and other information used to get a high-level understanding of individual risks. ### Risk response strategies **Avoid** - the project team acts to eliminate the threat or protect the project from its impact. **Exploit** - the project team acts to ensure that an opportunity occurs.  **Share** is the strategy that involves teaming agreements, partnerships, and joint ventures to pursue opportunities or positive risks that may otherwise be out of reach. **Transfer** - the project team shifts the impact of a threat to a third party, together with ownership of the response. **Reduce / mitigate.** - Risk **mitigation** is an action that is taken to reduce the probability of occurrence and/ or impact of a threat. Early mitigation action is often more effective than trying to repair the damage after the threat has occurred. Where it is not possible to reduce probability, a mitigation response might reduce the impact by targeting factors that drive the severity.  ### Risk types - A **technical** risk is centered around scope, requirements, technical processes, etc. A missing DoD is an example of technical risk. - An **external** risk is centered around factors outside of the organization; competition, legislation, regulation, environmental factors, etc. - A **management** risk is centered around managerial duties and processes; operations, resourcing, organization, communication, etc. - A **commercial** risk would becentered around transactional  factors; procurement, contracts, subcontractors, partnerships, etc. ### Run chart Also known as a trend chart or a time series plot. …Helps to identify trends or shifts in the process… A non-random pattern is signaled by too few or too many runs, or crossings of the median line. A **run** is a series of points in a row on one side of the median. [^87]  ### Sensitivity analysis helps to determine which risks have the most potential impact on a project, or in other words, whether the occurrence of a particular threat would merely be an inconvenience or whether it would ruin the project.[^88] ### Six Sigma A quality improvement method that focuses on understanding customers’ requirements and eliminating defects and waste. ### scatter diagram a tool and technique used in quality management processes to analyze two characteristics of a process and see if there is any **interdependency** between them. Based on the outcome of the scatter diagram, appropriate actions can be taken to improve quality.[^89] ### Scope creep when things are added to the scope nd were not in the approved scope baseline.[^90] ### scope management plan - This plan will define the project's goals, objectives, and deliverables. It will also identify the project's boundaries and constraints.[^91] - a component of a project or program management plan that describes how the scope will be defined, developed, monitored, controlled and validated. ### Secondary risk A risk created by the response to another risk. A consequence of dealing with another risk.[^92] ### social contract an agreement between the project manager and the team that outlines the expectations for behavior and performance.[^93] ### Statement of Work (SOW) contains all the work that needs to be executed for the project to be completed and accepted. ### SOW: Procurement - A narrative description of products, results, or services to be supplied by the project including the business need, product scope description or what is to be done, and how the project supports the strategic plan.[^94] - Provides sufficient detail for the bidder to determine if they are capable of supplying the products and deliverables. ### Source selection criteria  an output of the Plan Procurement Management process. It is developed and used to provide **sellers** with an understanding of the **buyer’s need** and also to help them in deciding **whether to bid** or make a proposal on the project. Later on, it also helps to **evaluate sellers** by rating or scoring them.[^95] ### Stakeholder - Mulcahy: A project stakeholder is one who is positively or negatively affected by or can positively or negatively affect the project or the product of the project.[^96] - PMBOK: A stakeholder is an individual, group or organization that may affect, be affected by or perceive itself to be affected by a decision, activity or outcome of a project. Project stakeholders may be internal or external to the project, they may be actively involved, passively involved or unaware of the project.... Examples of external stakeholders: customers, end users, suppliers, shareholders, regulatory bodies[^97] Stakeholder types - Champion: strongly supports - Neutral: no stakes - Antagonistt: sees no merit, uses political capital to place obstacles - Stoic: has high stakes but too busy or minimal interest, pays no attention. - Ignored or Invisible: removed- HR, legal, purchasing, ops. ### Stakeholder analysis When identifying relevant information about project stakeholders, it is important to consider their organizational positions, project roles, stakes, expectations, attitudes (levels of support for the project), and interest in the project information.  ### The Stakeholder Cube model categorizes stakeholders by their level of engagement, influence, and impact.  ### Stakeholder engagement plan This document outlines strategies and actions necessary to encourage stakeholders to effectively participate in decision-making and implementation processes. By identifying and mapping stakeholder requirements and expectations, we can develop appropriate strategies and approaches ### Stakeholder management The creation and maintenance of relationships with the aim to satisfy needs.[^98] The stakeholder management knowledge area is where you will identify stakeholders and create the stakeholder register.[^99] - Low power and low interest stake holders require minimum management effort. - High power and high interest stake holders must be kept satisfied - Low power and high interest stake holders must be kept informed and updated on the project ### External stakeholders “are individuals or groups outside the organization who could be impacted by the project or those who govern policy that influences and could affect the project."[^100] ### Stakeholder map involves different techniques to identify stakeholders by power and influence. ### stakeholder matrix is one of the techniques that allows you to to identify such power relations in stakeholders. ### Stakeholder power/interest scores - Low power and low interest stake holders require minimum management effort. - High power and high interest stake holders must be kept satisfied - Low power and high interest stake holders must be kept informed and updated on the project ### Stakeholder register As stakeholder identification continues throughout the project, new stakeholders, or new information about stakeholders, may result in a change request to the product, project management plan, or project documents. This register needs to be constantly examined and updated. The process of identifying and engaging stakeholders for the project's benefit is a **recurring one.** Stakeholder identification, prioritising, and involvement should be revisited and updated on a regular basis in Project Stakeholder Management. ### stakeholder workshop a meeting where all stakeholders come together to discuss and prioritize project requirements. This allows the project team to hear directly from stakeholders and understand their needs and concerns. It also allows stakeholders to interact with each other and learn more about the project's overall goals. During the workshop, the project team can use a variety of techniques to gather input from stakeholders, such as surveys, brainstorming sessions, and voting. The project team can also use the workshop to develop a stakeholder influence matrix, which is a tool that helps to identify and prioritize stakeholders based on their level of influence and interest in the project. ### Standard A document approved by a recognised body that provides guidelines. [^101] ### Theory x, y, z **Theory X** managers believe most people do not like work and will try to steer clear of it; they believe people have little to no ambition, need constant supervision, and won’t actually perform the duties of their job unless threatened. Theory X managers unknowingly also subscribe to the Expectancy Theory. If they expect people to be lazy and unproductive and treat them as such, their team members probably will be lazy and unproductive. **Theory Y** managers believe people are interested in performing their best given the right motivation and proper expectations. These managers provide support to their teams, are concerned about their team members, and are good listeners.  **Theory Z** is concerned with increasing employee loyalty to their organizations. ### Team agreements represent a set of behavioral parameters and working norms established by the project team and upheld through individual and project team commitment. Team agreements can include norms around holidays and time off, as well as other expectations for how the team will work together. By establishing team agreements, the project manager can set expectations and avoid misunderstandings. This can help ensure that everyone is on the same page and working towards the same goals. ### Team charter 1. This document records the project team values, agreements, and operating guidelines, and establishes clear expectations regarding acceptable behavior by project team members. 2. A document that outlines the team's purpose, goals, and roles and responsibilities. ### Threat A **threat** is an event or condition that, if it occurs, has a negative impact on one or more objectives. - In threat **mitigation**, action is taken to reduce the probability of occurrence and/ or impact of a threat. - Threat **acceptance** acknowledges the existence of a threat, but no proactive action is planned. - **Escalation** is appropriate when the project team or the project sponsor agrees that a threat is outside the scope of the project or that the proposed response would exceed the project manager’s authority [^102] Opportunities: - **Enhancement** the project team acts to **increase the probability **of occurrence or impact of an opportunity.  - The **Exploit** risk response strategy is one of the opportunity response strategies in risk management, used when the project team wants to ensure that an opportunity is **fully realized**… where the organization seeks to **maximize the benefit**. ### tornado diagram A diagramming method to display **sensitivity analysis** data by examining all the uncertain elements at their baseline values. It gives a quick overview of how much the project will be impacted by various elements. The element with the greatest impact on the project appears at the top. This diagram can be used to determine sensitivity in cost, time, and quality objectives and is helpful in determining detailed response plans for elements with greater impacts.[^103] ### trend analysis - a tool and technique used during the monitor and control phase of the project life-cycle. It can be used in the integration, time, cost, and risk knowledge areas.[^104] - Trend analysis is a forecasting technique used in project management to evaluate project performance over time and predict future performance based on historical results. It's used for tracking schedules, costs, and other performance measures.  ### Total quality management (TQM) the continual process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving the customer experience, and ensuring that employees are up to speed with training. ### transactional leadership Assumes that  (1) rewards and punishments motivate; (2) a clear chain of command creates the best organizational structure; (3) the leader clarifies performance-based expectations and goals; and, (4) the leader links achievement of goals to rewards Transactional leadership has a focus on interchange of performance for rewards, management-by-exception, monitoring, and correcting mistakes [^105] ### Value analysis aka ‘value engineering’ or ‘value methodology’. The technique of finding a less costly way to do the same work and of achieving more out of the project in every possible way to increase the bottom line, decrease costs, improve quality, and optimize the schedule without reducing or impacting the scope.[^106] ### Value stream mapping - a tool for identifying and eliminating waste in a process.  - a lean management technique used to analyze, design, and optimize the flow of materials and information required to bring a product or service to a customer. It helps identify waste, inefficiencies, and opportunities for process improvement. (Lean, Six Sigma, and Agile.) ### Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) provides a framework for planning and scheduling a project, aiding in estimating and scheduling tasks. The main benefit of a WBS is that it provides a clear and detailed breakdown of the project's scope, which aids in better planning, tracking, and control of the project.  ### WBS Dictionary A document that provides detailed deliverable, activity, and scheduling information about each component in the work breakdown structure.  WBS dictionary contains attributes about each work package such as an explanation of the work package (which invalidates choice ‘A’), who is assigned responsibility for the[^107] ### what-if scenario analysis evaluates scenarios to predict their effect on project objectives. ### Workarounds unplanned responses developed to deal with the occurrence of **unanticipated risk events** that were not included in the risk register.[^108] ### work authorization system a formal, documented procedure to describe how to authorize and initiate work in the correct sequence at the appropriate time[^109] ### Work performance data is the status of project parameters, such as how much work has been completed, how much time has elapsed, and the cost incurred so far. ### Work Performance Report the physical or electronic representation of the work performance information compiled in project documents, intended to generate decisions, actions or awareness. ### WSJF Don Reinertsen defined Weighted Shortest Job First (WSJF) as a way of ordering work to be done to lower overall cost of delay. SAFe® modified this definition in three ways: - Defining business value as business value, time criticality, risk reduction and/or opportunity enablement - Using relative numbers instead of value (and normalizing and adding these together) - Using effort instead of time ### User story  INVEST is an acronym that encompasses the following concepts which make up a good user story: - Independent - stories should be as independent as possible. - Negotiable - a story is not a contract. A story is an invitation to a conversation. - Valuable - if a story does not have discernable value it should not be done. - Estimatable - a story has to be able to be estimated or sized so it can be properly prioritized. - Small - stories should be small chunks of work (eg. two-week iterations average 3-4 days of work) - Testable - every story needs to be testable in order to be "done". [^1]: Crowe, 2020: 741. [^2]: [https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/appraisal-costs.asp](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/appraisal-costs.asp) [^3]: Ramdayal,2018:440. [^4]: Crowe,2020:40. [^5]: Crowe,2020:744. [^6]: Ramdayal,2018:430. [^7]: McLachlan, 2022: 6:40:27.  [^8]: Ramdayal,2018:435. [^9]: Crowe,2020: 377. [^10]: Mulcahy, 2023:96. [^11]: PMBoK Sixth Edition Chapter 7 Section 7.4.2.2 [^12]: Ramdayal,2018:434. [^13]: Ramdayal,2018:424. [^14]: Ramdayal, 2018:423. [^15]: Ramdayal,2018:422. [^16]: Ramdayal,2018:424. [^17]: Ramdayal,2018:437. [^18]: Sh: Assess and Manage Risks,q.1 [^19]: SH: and Manage Budget and Resources [^20]: Crowe, 2020: 739. [^21]: Ramdayal,2018:440. [^22]: Ramdayal,2018:424. [^23]: Crowe, 2020: 744. [^24]: Mulcahy, 2023: 269. [^25]: Ramdayal,2018:432. [^26]: Ramdayal,2018:432. [^27]: Ramdayal,2018:428. [^28]: Ramdayal,2018:423. [^29]: Ramdayal,2018:432. [^30]: PMBoK Sixth Edition Chapter 6 Section 6.5.2.6 [^31]: Ramdayal,2018:429. [^32]: Crowe, 2020: 749. [^33]: Ramdayal,2018:426. [^34]: Ramdayal,2018:435. [^35]: Ramdayal,2018:424. [^36]: Ramdayal,2018:423. [^37]: Crowe,2020:40. [^38]: Ramdayal,2018:426. [^39]: PMBoK, Sixth edition (2021) PMI/PMI/5/ [Item 5.2 PERFORM INTEGRATED CHANGE CONTROL](#) [^40]: Ramdayal,2018:432. [^41]: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishikawa\_diagram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishikawa_diagram) [^42]: SH  Manage Project Issues  Q11 [^43]: PMBOK Guide Sixth Edition (2018) PMI/PMI/6/6.5.2.6 SCHEDULE COMPRESSION [^44]: Mulcahy, 2023: 269. [^45]: Crowe,2020:40. [^46]: Cagan, 2008: 231 [^47]: PMBoK Sixth Edition Chapter 8 Section 8.2 [^48]: Ramdayal,2018:433. [^49]: Sh: Assess and Manage Risks,q.1 [^50]: SH [^51]: Crowe,2020: 239. [^52]: Crowe,2020: 239. [^53]: Project Management Body of Knowledge (11/02/16) Project Management Institute//3.4.5.1, 9.5/ Item 3.4.5.1  [^54]: Margules, 2011. [^55]: Crowe,2020: 380. [^56]: Study hall, Mini exam 4: Q7 [^57]: SH: Plan and Manage Quality of Products/deliverables [^58]: Ramdayal,2018:423. [^59]: Ramdayal,2018:429. [^60]: Ramdayal,2018:429. [^61]: Ramdayal,2018:441. [^62]: Crowe,2020:569. [^63]: Ramdayal,2018:428. [^64]: [https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-a-network-diagram-in-project-management/](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-a-network-diagram-in-project-management/) [^65]: Crowe,2020:564. [^66]: Ramdayal,2018:433. [^67]: Ramdayal, 2018: 422. [^68]: Ramdayal,2018:425. [^69]: Crowe,2020:38. [^70]: Crowe,2020:39. [^71]: Crowe,2020:40. [^72]: PMBOK 7: 184. [^73]: Mulcahy, 2023:59. [^74]: PMBOK 7: 4. [^75]: PMBOK 7: 186. [^76]: PMBOK 7: 4. [^77]: Crowe,2020:39. [^78]: SH: Plan and Manage Quality of Products/deliverables [^79]: Ramdayal,2018:438. [^80]: DM Udemy course, Quiz 3. [^81]: [https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/stakeholder-management-strategies-megaprojects-11848](https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/stakeholder-management-strategies-megaprojects-11848) [^82]: Ramdayal,2018:430. [^83]: Crowe,2020:40. [^84]: Ramdayal,2018:426. [^85]: PMBoK Sixth Edition Chapter 4 and 11 [^86]: SH Assess and Manage Risks: Q [^87]: [https://sixsigmastudyguide.com/run-chart/](https://sixsigmastudyguide.com/run-chart/) [https://pmstudycircle.com/control-chart-vs-run-chart/](https://pmstudycircle.com/control-chart-vs-run-chart/) [^88]: Ramdayal,2018:430. [^89]: Ramdayal,2018:433. [^90]: Ramdayal,2018:431. [^91]: SH mock exam 2:  Plan and Manage Budget and Resources [^92]: Hillson, 2014. [^93]: SH mock exam 1: Empower Team Members and Stakeholders [^94]: Ramdayal,2018:443. [^95]: Ramdayal,2018:433. [^96]: Mulcahy,2023:351. [^97]: Project Management Body of Knowledge (11/02/16) Project Management Institute//1.6/. [^98]: Crowe,2020:600. [^99]: Ramdayal,2018:444. [^100]: Forman and Discenza, 2012. [^101]: Crowe,2020:40. [^102]: SH Assess and Manage Risks: 10 [^103]: Ramdayal,2018:424. [^104]: SH: Manage Project Issues Q10 [^105]: Bristol and Yeatts - 2010. [^106]: CF. Ramdayal,2018:429. [^107]: Crowe, 2020:240. [^108]: Ramdayal,2018:441. [^109]: Ramdayal,2018:423.